After the grand narrative of the revolution went bankrupt after the Cultural Revolution and the promise of socialism lost its attraction especially after the end of the Cold War in the 1990s the PRC has been busy protecting the socialist legacy in institutional structures as well as social and cultural domains. The twenty-first century, especially since the 2000s, has witnessed the state’s increasingly strong presence in shaping public feelings and political consciousness where cultural industries, school curricula, and the development of tourism alike have again received attention from the party-state.

What has developed is a seemingly systematic construction of a memoryscape whose primary intention is to protect the legitimacy of the CCP, which is why the party-state is increasingly investing in patriotism, red culture, and socialist values. In the narrative developed in the past years the need for continuous rule of the CCP across historical ruptures has received widespread attention, primarily to strengthen political consciousness and cultural identity to cope with the contradictions that have emerged after the Cultural Revolution, may it be the opening to the world in the 1980s, the economic liberalization in the 1990s, or the growing cultural and intellectual exchange with foreign countries in the process of globalization since the 2000s.

It goes without saying that the CCP is highly selective in painting a picture of communist heritage that is intended to sustain a communist identity in the ongoing development of socialism with Chinese characteristics. With heritage being value-laden it is not surprising that red tourism also includes the dissemination of the core socialist values, patriotism, and commemorations of revolutionary martyrs (both physical [for instance 1, 2, 3] and digital) and national trauma (such as the Nanjing Massacre Memorial), efforts that are combined with a variety of strategies, such as Red Stories Competitions of Tourist Guides (红色故事讲解员大赛).

The original list of 100 sites promulgated in 2004 has grown continuously which indicates the party state’s emphasis on the role of red tourism, and in 2012 the provincial cities of Guang’an 广安, Yan’an 延安, Shaoshan 韶山, Jinggangshan 井冈山, Ruijin 瑞金, Zunyi 遵义, Shijiazhuang 石家庄, Linyi 临沂, Longyan 龙岩, and  Qingyang 庆阳 signed the China Red Tourism Cities Strategic Cooperation Yan’an Declaration (红色旅游城市联盟延安战略合作宣言).

A list with 797 sites of Red Tourism with detailed information on GPS data, addresses, and Chinese websites can be found here.

Red Tourism sites, as destinations of leisure and education, however, do not speak by themselves. They are integrated into one map that creates a nationwide and all-inclusive memoryscape under the guidance of the party-state. We understand memoryscape as a discursive space where revolutionary struggles, victories, and defeats in war battles, important events of the decades before the founding of the PRC in 1949, and sites of victory celebrations have taken place. These sites, we argue, are not exclusively physical ramifications of the revolution, but much more spaces where the physical and the virtual, the material and the discursive, and the diachronic and synchronic intersect. They are affective spaces where (urban) landscapes, historical sites, etc. are organized and put into relation to manifest or produce individual and collective experiences, feelings, and desires.

Previous research has analyzed in detail sites related to the history of the Communist Party, sacred sites of the revolution such as Ruijin, Shaoshan, and Yan’an, places of massacres and battle defeats dating from the Second Sino-Japanese War, etc. (for an overview on these sites see, next to the entries on this page, the publications of Kirk Denton). We argue in the following that understanding the process of creating and communicating such cultural and national identities requires an approach that goes beyond questions of tourist origin, tourist destination, and the connections between both, such as travel routes and transportation, or tourism advertisement that attract visitors.

It thus does not surprise that the distribution of these sites on the national map is fairly uneven where some provinces command several dozens to hundreds, and others only a few, such as the peripheral provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang. The following table derived from the red tourism sites lists of 2004 and 2016 provides a diachronic overview of the quantitative distribution:

Rather than being solitary spots on a map, the sites are interrelated in different ways, a circumstance that also determines their impact. For instance, red sites in one city or county are often under the authority and administration of one institution, thus combined in advertisements of local travel tours, with a typical case being the numerous red places in Yan’an. Others are interconnected on a provincial level, such as in the case of Hunan where the birthplaces of important revolutionary leaders such as Mao Zedong, He Long, Peng Dehuai, and Liu Shaoqi serve as a source of collective identity. Lastly, red sites are combined to create red routes that span over different lengths. In March 2005, the Central Ministry of Propaganda and the National Tourism Bureau announced thirty routes covering different regions of the country:

1. 北京━遵化━乐亭━天津线
2. 北京━保定━西柏坡线
3. 上海━嘉兴━平阳线
4. 南京━镇江━句容━常熟线
5. 泰州━盐城━淮安━徐州线
6. 南昌━吉安━井冈山线
7. 赣州━瑞金━于都━会昌━长汀━上杭━古田线
8. 井冈山━永新━茶陵━株洲线
9. 韶山━宁乡━平江线
10. 南宁━崇左━靖西━百色线
11. 贵阳━凯里━镇远━黎平━通道━桂林线
12. 贵阳━遵义━仁怀━赤水━泸州线
13. 成都━松潘━若尔盖━迭部━宕昌━岷县━临夏━兰州线
14. 成都━雅安━石棉━泸定━康定线
15. 昆明━会理━攀枝花━冕宁━西昌线
16. 兰州━定西━会宁━静宁━六盘山━银川线
17. 西安━洛川━延安━子长━榆林━绥德线
18. 黄山━婺源━上饶━弋阳━武夷山线
19. 黄山━绩溪━旌德━泾县━宣城━芜湖线
20. 济南━济宁━枣庄━临沂━连云港线
21. 武汉━麻城━红安━新县━信阳线
22. 合肥━六安━金寨━霍山━岳西━安庆线
23. 太原━大同━灵丘━涞源━易县━涿州线
24. 石家庄━西柏坡━涉县━长治━晋城线
25. 沈阳━锦州━葫芦岛━秦皇岛线
26. 四平━吉林━敦化━延吉━白山━临江━通化━集安线
27. 哈尔滨━阿城━尚志━海林━牡丹江线
28. 重庆━广安━仪陇━巴中线
29. 海口━文昌━琼海━五指山线
30. 张家界━桑植━永顺━吉首━铜仁线

This list as well as the close to 800 sites indicated on the map are constantly enhanced, following both the need for omnipresent ideological education and local tourism development.

Picture:

Geographic map of China, Google Tmap Mobility, Copyright 2022, amended by a list of 796 places of Red Tourism (xml-file downloadable on the map site).

In addition, the CCP started to establish Soviet Areas 苏区 that should consolidate the communist influence in local areas. According to Tony Saich, the CCP considered the foundation of the Soviet Areas as a significant measure to give an own government to the masses of workers and peasants (Saich 1996: 338). 

The Huangan-Macheng Uprising 黄麻起义 was an important insurrection launched by the CCP to foster the control over the area, which would become part of the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area 鄂豫皖苏区. On 13^th November 1927, armed forces consisting of peasants were mobilized to conquer the county seat of Huangan 黄安 (today’s Hongan 红安), Hubei Province 湖北省. Five days later, the newly founded Peasants’ Government 农民政府 of Huangan held its inaugural meeting, in which the new chairman Cao Xuekai 曹学楷 (1896-1931) was elected (Guo 1987: 83,170). After the Nanchang Uprising and the Autumn Harvest Uprising, the Huangan-Macheng Uprising was the largest armed peasant uprising in areas north of the Yangtze (People’s Daily 2007). 

In 1956, the first steps to establish a martyrs cemetery dedicated to the fallen CCP soldiers during the Huangan-Macheng Uprising at Hongan were taken. Between 1956 and 2010 the Revolutionary Martyrs Cemetery of the Huangan-Macheng Uprising and the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area 黄麻起义和鄂豫皖苏区革命烈士陵园 was expanded regularly and several memorial sites were added to the site, such as the Hongan Generals Hall 红安将军馆. In addition thematic exhibition halls dedicated to CCP founding member Dong Biwu 董必武 (1886-1975) and former PRC president Li Xinnian 李先念 (1909-1992) were built.  

As stated on the website Yi qi zhui ji, the Memorial Hall of Revolutionary History in the Huangan-Macheng Uprising and the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area 黄麻起义和鄂豫皖苏区革命历史纪念馆 was added to the site in 2006 and officially inaugurated on the 13th November 2007. The memorial hall opens with the Prologue Hall 序厅that features a large-scale sculpture “Heroism of the Dabie Mountain 大别山雄风” Six thematic exhibitions are on display, such as “The Thunder of Huangan-Macheng 黄麻惊雷” and “The New Appearance of the Red Area 赤区新貌” which are portraying the history of the Huangan-Macheng Uprising and its impact on the communist rule in the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area. 

The site appears to occupy a significant place in the CCP revolutionary history, because several prominent party leaders such as former CCP chairman Jiang Zemin 江泽民 (born 1926) or Li Xiannian donated inscriptions to the memorial (People’s Daily 1992). The relevance of the site for the struggle of the CCP against their nationalist opponents might also be the reason it was added to the first list of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 1997.

Bibliography: 

Fang Zhengjun 方政军 and Xin Xiandong 辛向东 (14.11.1992): Huangma qiyi he e yu wan suou geming lieshi jinianguan luocheng 黄麻起义和鄂豫皖苏区革命烈士纪念馆落成 (The Revolutionary Martyrs Memorial of the Huangan-Macheng Uprising and the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area has been completed). In: People’s Daily 人民日报. 

Guo Jiaqi 郭家齐 Ed. (1987): Huangma qiyi 黄麻起义 (The Huangan-Macheng Uprising). Wuhan 武汉: Wuhan daxue chubanshe. 

Saich, Tony (1996): The rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party. Armonk: An East Gate Book.

Tian Doudou 田豆豆 (14.11.2007): “Hubei longzhong jinian huangma qiyi, 80 zhounian 湖北隆重纪念黄麻起义80周年 (Hubei solemnly commemorates the 80^th anniversary of the Huangan.Macheng Uprising)”. In: People’s Daily人民日报. 

Xiao Han 肖晗 (13.01.2017): “Hongan xian Huangma qiyi he e yu wan suou geming lieshi lingyuan 红安县黄麻起义和鄂豫皖苏区革命烈士陵园 (The Revolutionary Martyrs Cemetery of the Huangan-Macheng Uprising and the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area at Hongjun County)”. Found on: https://www.hbdysh.cn/2017/0113/28534.shtml (latest access: 28.11.2021). 

Website “Yi qi zhui ji”: https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/3481.html?keyword=%E9%BA%BB%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89%E5%92%8C%E9%84%82%E8%B1%AB%E7%9A%96%E8%8B%8F%E5%8C%BA%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD%E7%83%88%E5%A3%AB%E9%99%B5%E5%9B%AD#

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: “Communists being rounded up in one of the purges” (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_massacre#/media/File:Communist_purge.jpg, author: Unknown author.

As part of the United Front the CCP established Peasant Movement Training Institutes to train the growing number of rural cadres who should lead the revolutionary struggle of the peasants.

In 1926, the “Central Peasant Movement Workshop hosted by Mao Zedong 毛泽东同志主办的中央农民运动讲习所旧址” was founded in the city of Guangzhou 广州市, Guangdong Province 广东省. One year later Mao Zedong 毛泽东 (1893-1976) went to the city of Wuchang 武昌市, Hubei Province 湖北省 to found another workshop. 

The Historical Site of the Central Peasant Movement Training Institute 中央农民讲习所旧址 in today’s Wuchang District (part of the prefecture-level city of Wuhan) commemorates the time between March and June 1927, during which Mao trained over 800 young farmers in Wuchang. Similar to the training institute in Guangzhou, the trainees not only attended courses dealing with the theoretical topics of agriculture like “Rural Education 农民教育“ or „Rural Problems 农民问题“. In addition, they took courses in Marxist-Leninist Thought and military training (Ye 1979: 5).

After the collapse of the First United Front in July 1927, the training institute was closed due to the increasing tensions between the CCP and its nationalist opponent. 

In 1958, premier minister Zhou Enlai 周恩来 (1898-1976), who was concerned with the restoration of the site, donated an inscription of his calligraphy “The Historical Site of the Central Peasant Movement Training Institute founded by Comrade Mao Zedong 毛泽东同志主办的中央农民运动讲习所旧址” (Ye 1979:6). According to the website “Renmin Wang”, the memorial was renovated and officially opened to the public in 1963. Since then visitors can see the original rooms used in the training institute, such as the big classroom, the students’ dormitory, and the office of the Standing Comittee. 

Due to his leading position in the implementation of the workshop, it is not surprising that Mao’s residence was located nearby, at Dufudi 都府堤 street, No. 14. Like the Historical Site of the Central Peasant Movement Training Institute, Mao’s former residence, where he lived and prepared the lectures for his courses, is also open to the public (Renmin Wang). 

Similar to the site in Guangzhou, the training institute in Wuchang intends to present how the education of the rural masses was carried out as part of the revolution, a particularly important policy of the CCP during the 1920s and 1930s. 

Bibliography: 

Peng Jingyi 彭婧怡 and Zhao Gang 赵纲 (10.05.2021): “Mao Zedong tongzhi zhuban de zhongyang nongmin yundong jiangxi suo jiuzhi jianye 毛泽东同志主办的中央农民运动讲习所旧址简介 (A brief introduction to the Historical Site of the Central Peasant Movement Training Institute hosted by Comrade Mao Zedong)”. In: Renmin Wang https://v.people.cn/n1/2021/0510/c437381-32099082.html (latest access: 20.12.2021). 

Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig (2008): Kleine Geschichte Chinas. München: C.H. Beck. 

Ye Duchu 叶笃初 (1979): Zhongyang nongmin yundong Jiangxi suo 中央农民运动讲习所 (The Central Peasant Movement Training Institute). Shanghai 上海: Shanghai renmin chubanshe. 

Zhang Juan 张隽 and Rong Xianming 荣先明 (26.04.2021): “Jiandang bainian. Wuchang gushi: Mao Zedong he Yang Kaihui de zuihou tuanju di 建党百年·武昌故事：毛泽东和杨开慧的最后团聚地 (Celebrating the Centennial of  the party. The tale of Wuchang: The last reunion place of Mao Zedong and Yang Kaihui)” In: Renmin Wang https://hb.people.com.cn/n2/2021/0426/c194063-34695856.html (last access: 20.12.2021). 

Huang, Philip C.C. (1975): “Mao Tse-Tung and the Middle Peasants, 1925-1928”. In: Modern China 1.3: Pp. 271-296.

List of Pictures:

Featured Image “中央农民运动讲习所旧址纪念馆（现为武汉市革命博物馆），前身是第一次国共合作时期毛泽东倡议创办的一所培养全国农民运动干部的学校，于1963年建成开放，时任总理周恩来题写了馆名。2001年第5批全国重点文物保护单位之一。” (source: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%86%9C%E6%B0%91%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8%E8%AE%B2%E4%B9%A0%E6%89%80%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86#/media/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%86%9C%E6%B0%91%E8%BF%90%E5%8A%A8%E8%AE%B2%E4%B9%A0%E6%89%80%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%86.jpg , author: kiraclyne).

The Yalu River Broken Bridge in Dandong 鸭绿江断桥景 is one of the best-known among the bridges that were destroyed during the Korean War. According to the website “Meipian.cn”, the bridge was built between 1909 and 1911 with a length of 944,2 meters. A second bridge was completed in 1943 near the first one by the Imperial Japanese Army to connect Korea and Manchukuo, both under Japanese control then. In November 1950, The US Air Force dropped bombs on the two bridges to disrupt the transportation of military supplies and Chinese troops into Korea.

Whereas the second bridge was repaired later, the Chinese part of the first bridge that survived the air raid was preserved and came to be known as the “Yalu River Broke Bridge.” Until now, the Yalu Broken Bridge has been used as a memorial that commemorates the Chinese engagement during the Korean war. 

Today, visitors can walk over the broken bridge to gain an impression of the intensity of the American attack. In addition, boat tours on the Yalu are offered to get a better view of the bridge, which still contains shrapnels that should testify the confrontation between the American and Chinese troops (mafengwo.cn). 

Alongside the “Resist US, Assist North Korea Memorial Museums in Shenyang and Dandong”, the Yalu River Broken Bridge is also an important site to memorialize the Chinese engagement in the Korean War. In June 2001 the Yalu River Broken Bridge was announced a “National Patriotic Education Demonstration Base 全国爱国主义教育示范基地“ (People’s Daily 人民日报 2001). These bases are being built into places of memory in the PRC, which should play an important role in its history and historical memory. 

Bibliography: 

Denton, Kirk A. (2014): Exhibiting the Past – Historical memory and the Politics of Museum in Postsocialist China. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.

Chen, Jian (1994): China’s Road to the Korean War – The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation. New York: Columbia University Press. 

N.N. (2001): “Zhong Xuanbu gongbu di er pi quanguo aiguozhuyi jiaoyu shifan jidi 中宣部公布第二批全国爱国主义教育示范基地 (The Minister of Central Propaganda announced the Second Batch of National Patriotic Education Demonstration Bases)” In: People’s Daily 人民日报, 12.06.2001. 

Shu, Guang Zhang (1995): Mao’s Military Romanticism – China and the Korean War, 1950-1953. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press. 

Websites: 

meipian.cn: https://www.meipian.cn/2zh1r10c

mafengwo.cn: https://www.mafengwo.cn/poi/33267.html

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: Chinesisch-koreanische Freundschaftsbrücke (source: Dandong, Liaoning Province – Chinesisch-koreanische Freundschaftsbrücke – Wikipedia, author: Prince Roy – Flickr).

Picture 1: Bombenangriff auf die Brücke 1950. (source: Chinesisch-koreanische Freundschaftsbrücke – Wikipedia, author: U.S. Navy).

Picture 2: Aussichtsplattform der “gebrochenen Brücke” auf der chinesischen Seite (source: 断桥尽头 – The End of Yalu River Broken Bridge – 2011.05 – panoramio – Chinesisch-koreanische Freundschaftsbrücke – Wikipedia, author: rheins).

The Museum of the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Revolution in Xin County 新县鄂豫皖苏区首府革命博物馆, was open to the public in 1984 and is located in Henan Province 河南省. It contains more than 1130 exhibits, mainly consisting of cultural relics, such as military equipments or historical documents related to the Soviet government (Yi qi zhui ji). 

As stated on the official website of the memorial, the permanent exhibition “Red Dabie Mountain 红色大别山” portrays the revolutionary history of this region with all its uprisings and military struggles until 1948. In addition, the thematic exhibition “Hall of the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area Generals鄂豫皖苏区将帅馆” presents 349 high ranking Red Army officers who worked at and fought for the base, such as the later PLA marshals Liu Bocheng 刘伯承 (1892-1986) and Xu Xiangqian 徐向前 (1901-1990). The hall also displays photos and bronze statues of the generals. The site further offers several temporary exhibitions that thematize the achievements of the base for the communist movement in China.

Due to the military relevance of the site during the communist struggle of survival against the GMD, it was added to the second list of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 2001.

Bibliography: 

Saich, Tony (1996): The rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party. Armonk: An East Gate Book.

Zhang Xiangbing 张湘炳 and Zhu Deqi 朱德其 (06.01.1981): “E yu wan su qu lishi yanjiu hui – taolun e yu wan wuzhuang douzheng, tudi geming, sufan deng wenti 鄂豫皖苏区历史研究会-讨论鄂豫皖武装斗争、土地革命、肃反等问题 (The historical research association of the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area – A discussion about the military struggle at Hubei, Henan and Anhui, the land revolution and the problem of eliminating counterrevolutionaries)”. In: Guangming Ribao 光明日报. 

Zhang Yaolun 张耀纶 (1988): E yu wan su qu jiaoyu shi 鄂豫皖苏区教育史 (Historical teaching about the Hubei-Henan-Anhui Soviet Area). Kaifeng 开封: Henan daxue chubanshe. 

Website “Yi qi zhui ji”: https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/3240.html

Official Website of the site: https://www.eywsqsfbwg.com/

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: “Wind and snow in the Dabie Mountains” (source: https://chineseposters.net/posters/e13-641, designer: Shi Qi 石齐, Call number: BG E13/641 (Stefan R. Landsberger Collection)).

 In May 1934, Zhou Enlai 周恩来 (1898-1976) instructed Chen Zihua 程子华 (1905-1991), a Red Army political commissar, to take command of this army and to lead it to a new combat base (Salisbury 1985: 73). After he arrived in Henan province, Chen assembled the 25^th Army forces at the village Hejiachong 何家冲, in the South of Luoshan County 罗山县 and ordered their departure on 26^th November 1934. According to a book on revolutionary bases in Henan, around 2,900 officers and soldiers participated in this march, which ended several months later in the North of Shaanxi province 陕西省 (Wang 1997: 321). In addition, the 25^th Red Army has been considered the first Red Army force that reached the mountains of Shaanxi (Yi qi zhui ji). In 2004, the 25^th Red Army Long March Departure Site 红二十五军长征出发地 was announced as a site of Red Tourism and functions as a memorial site that commemorates the decampment of this combat force.

According to the website “Yi qi zhui ji” the memorial site consists of three parts today, namely the “Original Site of the 25^th Red Army Hospital 红二十五军医院旧址”, the “Site of Assembly before the Long March Departure 长征出发集合地遗址” and the “Original Site of the 25^th Red Army Headquarter红二十五军军部旧址”. The last was located at the Ancestral Temple of the He Family 何氏祠, which was turned into a memorial hall dedicated to the 25^th Army and its achievements. According to the People’s Daily, not only the administrative staff of the army had its headquarter at this temple, but also the former guardhouse and the political department were located there. Like other memorials dealing with the theme of the Long March, the 25^th Red Army Departure Site intends to commemorate the exploits of the Red Army that led to the establishment of a new safe haven at Shaanxi Province. Due to this, the history of the Long March is intrinsically tied to the history of the Communist combat forces that were fighting for the survival of the Party.

Bibliography:

Gao Hua 高华 (2006): “Hongjun changcheng de lishi xushu shi zenyang xingcheng de 红军长征的历史叙述是怎样形成的 (How the historical narrative of the Long March of the Red Army was formed).”  In: Yanhuang Chunjiu 炎黄春秋 10 (2006). Pp. 27-32.

Li Zhongchun 李忠春 and Dai Peng 戴鹏 (11.10.2006): “Da bie gaoge yong xiangqian – fang hong ershiwu jun changzheng chufa di 大别高歌永向前——访红二十五军长征出发地 (A great farwell sings forever forward – Visit the 25th Red Army Departure Place of the Long March)”. In: People’s Daily 人民日报.

Wang Wanbang 王万邦 (1997): Henan geming genjudi shi lu 河南革命根据地实录 (The real record of revolutionary bases at Henan). Zhengzhou 郑州: Henan renmin chubanshe

Salisbury, Harrisone E. (1985): Der Lange Marsch. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer Verlag.

Website Yi qi zhui ji:

https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/3233.html

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: “The revolutionary main force establishes a foundation in the Northwest” (source: https://chineseposters.net/posters/e15-847 , designer: Xiao Hui 肖辉, Call number: BG E15/847 (Stefan R. Landsberger Collection)).

The Museum of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army 东北抗联博物馆 located in Harbin City 哈尔滨市, Heilongjiang Province 黑龙江省 mainly displays the Chinese achievements during the War of Resistance against Japan in the Northeast of China (Huang 2006: 240). As stated on the website mafengwo.cn, the museum was formerly known as the Heilongjiang Museum of Revolution 黑龙江省革命博物馆 and after the site was renovated and expanded, the Museum of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army was officially open to the public in 2010. As a memorial it reflects the history of the Chinese struggle against the Japanese Empire from the Mukden Incident in September 1931 till the Japanese capitulation 14 years later. In 2015, for instance, an exhibition with the title “Fourteen Years of the Anti-Japanese Resistance – An Exhibition of the History of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army 抗战十四年——东北抗日联军历史陈列” was held to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) (peoples.cn). According to a virtual version of the Museum of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army found on the website 720yun.com, the site seems to contain a huge number of exhibits such as photos, rifles, helmets and other objects used by both the Chinese forces and their Japanese opponents. As stated on the website peoples.cn, the site is considered as the largest platform to display the history of the Northeast United Army and their struggle against the Japanese Imperial Army.

Due to the thematic and spatial proximities of the Museum of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army and the Memorial Hall of Martyrs in Northeast China 东北烈士纪念馆, it is not surprising that the two sites are interacting with each other as far as the implementation of exhibition projects are concerned. As reported by the Guangming Daily 光明日报, the two museums worked together to hold an exhibition titled “Ode to the Heroes of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army 东北抗联英烈颂” in 2017 to celebrate the 72^nd anniversary of the victory over the Japanese forces (Guangming Ribao 2017). By portraying the achievements of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, the site further emphasises the impact of the Manchurian guerrilla forces on the national defense. This might also be the reason why the site was announced as a National Defense Education Demonstration Base 国家国防教育示范基地 in 2009 (peoples.cn).

Bibliography:

Huang Mingliang 黄明亮 (2006): Hongse lüyou xiao baike 红色旅游小百科 (Little Encyclopaedia of Red Tourism). Nanchang 南昌: Jiangxi kexue zhi shu chubanshe.

N.N. (12.08.2009): “Dongbei kang ri lianjun chuangjian ren he lingdaoren zhiyi – Zhao Shangzhi 东北抗日联军创建人和领导人之一——赵尚志 (One of the founders and leaders of the Northeast Anti-Japanese Allied Forces – Zhao Shangzhi)”. In: People’s Daily 人民日报.

Zhao Hongbo 赵洪波 and Zhang Shiying 张士英 (04.09.2017): “‘Dongbei kang lian yinglie song‘ zhuti huodong juxing 东北抗联英烈颂 主题活动举行 (The Theme Activity „Ode to the Northeast Anti-Japanese Heros was held)“. In: Guangming ribao 光明日报.

Zhu Weihua 朱伟华 and Zhang Shiying 张士英 (22.05.2017): “Dongbei lieshi jinianguan wenxian xinxi zhongxin xiang shehui kaifang 东北烈士纪念馆文献信息中心向社会开放 (The Document and Information Center of the Memorial of Martyrs in the Northeast was open to the public)“. In: Guangming ribao 光明日报.

Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig (2008): Kleine Geschichte Chinas. München: C.H. Beck.

Website „peoples.cn“:

https://v.people.cn/n1/2021/0428/c437373-32090868.html

Website “720yun.com”:

https://720yun.com/t/86vkuwfy78q?scene_id=40264197

Website Mafengwo.cn:

https://www.mafengwo.cn/poi/6628715.html

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: “We live to struggle for the nation!” (source: https://chineseposters.net/posters/pc-1938-009, designer: unknown, Call number: PC-1938-009 (Stefan R. Landsberger Private Collection)).

Manchuria, especially, was a “hot spot” of Communist resistance against the invasion of the Japanese Empire. According to the research of Kai Vogelsang, between 1932 and 1940, the Japanese Army killed 66.000 people related to the CCP, who rose against the puppet state Manchukuo 满洲国, controlled by the Japanese government (Vogelsang 2020: 379). It is therefore not surprising that a memorial hall was built to commemorate the Chinese struggle against Japan in the Northeast of China.

The Memorial Hall of Martyrs in Northeast China 东北烈士纪念馆 in Harbin 哈尔滨市 of Heilongjiang Province 黑龙江省.

As stated in a guide published in 1958 by the memorial hall itself, it was opened to the public on 10. October 1948. The building that houses the memorial hall used to be the location of  the Manchukuo Police in Harbin 满洲国哈尔滨警察庁, which was in charge of the internal security of Manchukuo. The site is therefore seen as inextricably linked with the suppression of the Chinese people (Yi qi zhui ji).

The memorial hall commemorates the heroic deeds of several martyrs who fought against the Japanese Army, such as the CCP founding member Chen Tanqiu 陈潭秋 (1896-1943) and the female resistance fighter Zhao Yiman 趙一曼 (1905-1936).

Right after its inauguration, the memorial hall offered more than 12 exhibition rooms with more than 800 historical cultural relics, such as photos, rifles, and other objects related to the martyrs as well as their opponents (Dongbei lieshi jinianguan 1958: 2, 6).  According to the website bytravel.cn, after the site was renovated in 1998, it held more than 10 large-scale thematic exhibitions such as “The Exhibition of Chosen Inscriptions and Paintings from the Collection of the Memorial Hall of Martyrs in Northeast China  东北烈士纪念馆馆藏题词、绘画精品展”.  Since 2005 the memorial hall has held two permanent exhibitions: “Heroic Souls on the Black Soil – The Exhibition of Martyrs’ Deeds during the War of Resistance against Japan in the Northeast 黑土英魂—东北抗日战争时期烈士事迹陈列” shows 14 years of resistance against the Japanese by the people in Northeast China between 1931 and 1945; and “The Exhibition of the Reconstructed Site of the Police of the Puppet State Manchukuo in Harbin and its Crimes 伪满洲国哈尔滨警察厅遗址及罪恶展” intends to reveal the Manchukuo Police’s brutal suppression of the local people (Yi qi zhui ji).

As reported in an article published in the Guangming Daily 光明日报, the memorial hall also offers electronic reading sections and multifunctional activity rooms. In addition, a research center is planned to be added to the site, with relevant historical documents and materials available for visitors to download.

Like the Memorial Park and Hall of the Martyr Dong Cunrui 董存瑞烈士陵园及纪念馆 in Hebei Province 河北省 and the Liu Hulan Memorial 刘胡兰纪念馆 in Shanxi Province 山西省, the Memorial Hall of Martyrs in Northeast China was listed in the first batch of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 1997. Insofar, we may say that the worship of martyrs is a major dimension of political education in post-Maoist China.

Bibliography:

Dongbei lieshi jinianguan ed. 东北烈士纪念馆编 (1958): Dongbei lieshi jinianguan 东北烈士纪念馆 (The Northeast China Martyrs Memorial Hall). Harbin 黑龙江: Heilongjiang renmin chubanshe.

Vogelsang, Kai (2020): China und Japan – Zwei Reiche unter einem Himmel. Stuttgart: Körner Verlag.

Zhao Hongbo 赵洪波 and Zhang Shiying 张士英 (04.09.2017): “‘Dongbei kang lian yinglie song‘ zhuti huodong juxing 东北抗联英烈颂 主题活动举行 (The Theme Activity „Ode to the Northeast Anti-Japanese Heros was held)“. In: Guangming ribao 光明日报.

Zhu Weihua 朱伟华 and Zhang Shiying 张士英 (22.05.2017): “Dongbei lieshi jinianguan wenxian xinxi zhongxin xiang shehui kaifang 东北烈士纪念馆文献信息中心向社会开放 (The Document and Information Center of the Memorial of Martyrs in the Northeast was open to the public)“. In: Guangming ribao 光明日报.

Website bytravel.cn: https://www.bytravel.cn/landscape/14/dongbeilieshijinianguan.html

Website Yi qi zhui ji:

https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/887.html

List of Pictures:

Featured Image : “东北烈士纪念馆2017夏。正面” (source: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E6%BB%A1%E6%B4%B2%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%88%E5%B0%94%E6%BB%A8%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%8E%85%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80#/media/File:%E4%B8%9C%E5%8C%97%E7%83%88%E5%A3%AB%E7%BA%AA%E5%BF%B5%E9%A6%862017%E5%A4%8F.jpg , author: Amarespeco).

Picture 1: “临时关押处，赵一曼1936年7月被关押在此 (The temporary prison site, where Zhao Yiman was imprisoned in July 1936) (source: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AA%E6%BB%A1%E6%B4%B2%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%88%E5%B0%94%E6%BB%A8%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%8E%85%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80#/media/File:%E6%BB%A1%E6%B4%B2%E5%9B%BD%E5%93%88%E5%B0%94%E6%BB%A8%E8%AD%A6%E5%AF%9F%E5%8E%85_%E4%B8%B4%E6%97%B6%E5%85%B3%E6%8A%BC%E5%A4%84.jpg , author: Huanokinhejo).

In 1961 the site of the NFA Headquarter at Yunling was declared a national-level key cultural heritage. Chen Yi 陈毅 (1901-1972), an important commander of the NFA, calligraphed the characters of the “Memorial of (the Historic Site of) the NFA Headquarter 新四军军部旧址纪念馆” in 1963. The memorial was open to the public in 1985. 

Occupying a total area of 20,000 m², this memorial has preserved ten original buildings, including the commanding center 司令部, the main auditorium 大会堂, the political department 政治部,  etc.. They are among the best preserved sites of revolution in China. The architecture of these buildings features the distinct local style (see Picture 1). The memorial boasts a collection of more than 4,000 pictures and artefacts related to the NFA history and its military leaders (Jingxian wenlü ju). 

The Exhibition Hall of the NFA Historical Materials 新四军史料陈列馆, which belongs to the memorial, was completed in 2011. It possesses an exhibition area of 6,800 m² and uses various exhibition techniques to present its collection on the NFA history from 1937 to 1947, ranging from sand table models to various digital technologies (Jinghao).

In July 1940, the GMD called for the transfer of all Communist units, including the NFA, north of the Yellow River in order to reduce internal strifes between Nationalist and Communist forces, which Gregor Benton attributes to “unauthorized Communist expansion north of the Yangzi River and south of the Yellow River” (681). After the victorious Battle of HuangQiao in October 1940, the CCP leaders in Yan’an wanted the NFA at Yunling to “go north, set up bases, governments, and schools there, and recruit 100,000 new troops” before the end of 1940 (Benton 694). By October 1940, however, roads to the west, south, and east of Yunling had been all blocked by Nationalist divisions. In December 1940 tensions rose quickly around Yunling, for example, the GMD actively increased their influences in the region; their agents purged Communist sympathizers (Benton 702).

The NFA’s evacuation from Yunling was preceded by constant negotiations among various players, including the NFA commanders Ye Ting 叶挺 (1896-1946) and Xiang Ying 项英(1898-1941)(especially the latter), CCP leaders in Yan’an, GMD leaders in Chongqing, and several GMD military generals. This had led to changes and confusions about the route and date of the evacuation.

The NFA started to leave Yunling at midnight on January 4^th, 1941. Serious fighting between the NFA and the GMD forces began near Piling Peak 丕岭 on January 7^th. Both sides accused the other for provoking the conflict. The NFA commanders Ye Ting and Xiang Ying could not agree on what to do. Xiang Ying even left the battlefield for a couple of days. The conflict continued till the January 14th. Only a small part of the NFA soldiers broke through the encirclement of the GMD forces. So far historians have not agreed on the casualties of the NFA in this conflict, which has been known as the South Anhui Incident 皖南事变. Estimates vary wildly: the number of the killed ranges from 2,000 to 17,000. Many of the NFA prisoners were sent to the Third War Zone’s Concentration and Instruction Column at Shangrao Concentration Camp (Benton 703-710). 

On January 17^th, 1941, shortly after the South Anhui Incident, the GMD government disbanded the NFA on the grounds of military discipline, but the CCP immediately ordered the reorganization of the NFA (merging with the Eighth Routh Army) on January 20th, with its new headquarter in Yancheng. On January 18^th, Zhou Enlai 周恩来 (1898-1976) referred to those killed in the South Anhui Incident as “those who fell in the national calamity 死国难者” in the Communist newspaper New China Daily  新华日报, suggesting their status of martyr. 

The Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs 皖南事变烈士陵园 was built in 1990 on the Shuixi Mountain 水西山 in Jing County and was open to the public in January 1991 to memorialize the South Anhui Incident fifty years ago.

The memorial park is made up of four commemorative spaces, whose sequence along the rising mountain should give a sense of progression: the Monument at the Entrance入口纪念碑，the Commemorative Theme Square 主题广场, the Commemorative Square with the Major Monument 主碑纪念广场 and the Tombs of Nameless Martyrs 无名烈士墓. Standing in the center of the whole memorial park is the major monument, which bears Deng Xiaoping’s 邓小平 (1904-1997) calligraphy “The Martyrs Who Fell in the South Anhui Incident are Immortal 皖南事变死难烈士永垂不朽.” On this Commemorative Square also stand nine pillars, in which only two are complete. They stand for the official version of the NFA casualties: among 9,000 NFA soldiers departing from Yunling only 2,000 survived the GMD attacks.

The Memorial Park also has an Exhibition Hall of the South Anhui Incident 皖南事变陈列馆. The exhibition has four parts: the Historical Background of the South Anhui Incident 皖南事变的历史背景; the South Anhui Incident that Shocked the World 震惊中外的皖南事变; the Reorganisation of the NFA Headquarter 重建新四军军部, and Heroes and Martyrs of the South Anhui Incident 皖南事变英烈 (Guo and Cui).

Both the Memorial of the NFA Headquarter and the Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs have served as national-level Bases for Patriotic Education 全国爱国注意教育基地 since 1995.

Bibliography:

Benton, Gregor (1986): “The South Anhui Incident.” In: The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 45, no. 4: 681-720. 

Guo Bei 郭蓓 and Cui Xin 崔欣 (eds. 2021): “Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan ji Wannan shibian liesi lingyuan 新四军军部旧址纪念馆暨皖南事变烈士陵园 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter and the Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs).” Zhongguo Jiangsu wang 中国江苏网 (June 27).

Jinghao 静好 (ed. 2014): “Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan ji Wannan shibian liesi lingyuan 新四军军部旧址纪念馆及皖南事变烈士陵园 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter and the Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs).” Anhui wenming wang 安徽文明网 (Dec. 8). 

Jingxian wenlü ju 泾县文旅局 (2021): “Wannan shibian lieshi lingyuan 皖南事变烈士陵园 (The Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs).” Official Site of Jingxian renmin zhengfu 泾县人民政府 (Nov. 3). 

Jingxian wenlü ju 泾县文旅局 (2021): “Yunling Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan云岭新四军军部旧址纪念馆 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter at Yunling).” Official Site of Jingxian renmin zhengfu 泾县人民政府 (Nov. 3). 

List of Pictures

Featured Image: The Exhibition Hall of the South Anhui Incident. Jinghao 静好 (ed. 2014): “Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan ji Wannan shibian liesi lingyuan 新四军军部旧址纪念馆及皖南事变烈士陵园 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter and the Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs).” Anhui wenming wang 安徽文明网 (Dec. 8). 

Picture 1. The Auditorium of the NFA Headquarter at Yunling.  Jingxian wenlü ju 泾县文旅局 (2021): “Yunling Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan 云岭新四军军部旧址纪念馆 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter at Yunling).” Official Site of Jingxian renmin zhengfu 泾县人民政府 (Nov. 3). 

Picture 2. The Exhibition Hall of the NFA Historical Materials.  Jingxian wenlü ju 泾县文旅局 (2021): “Yunling Xinsijun junbu jiuzhi jinianguan 云岭新四军军部旧址纪念馆 (The Memorial of the Historic Site of the NFA Headquarter at Yunling).” Official Site of Jingxian renmin zhengfu 泾县人民政府 (Nov. 3). 

Picture 3. The Commemorative Square with the Major Monument. Jingxian wenlü ju 泾县文旅局 (2021): “Wannan shibian lieshi lingyuan 皖南事变烈士陵园 (The Memorial Park of the South Anhui Incident Martyrs).” Official Site of Jingxian renmin zhengfu 泾县人民政府 (Nov. 3). 

The Memorial Hall of the Zunyi Conference遵义会议纪念馆 in the city of Zunyi  attempts to reconstruct the process of the conference and commemorate its significant impact on the Communist movement for the years to come. As stated on the official website of the memorial, the compound of the site is composed of four main parts, namely the Site of the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议会址, the Exhibition Hall of the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议陈列馆, the House Accommodating Mao Zedong, (CCP Central Committee member) Zhang Wentian 张闻天 (1900-1976) and (the vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission) Wang Jiaxiang 王稼祥 (1906-1974) during the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议期间毛泽东、张闻天、王稼祥住址 and the Historical Site of the General Political Department of the Red Army during the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议期间红军总政治部旧址. The memorial was opened in 1955. Nine years later, Mao’s calligraphy of “The Site of the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议会址” was added to a former venue (Yi qi zhui ji), indicating the political significance of the site. In 2015, the Exhibition Hall of the Zhunyi Conference was open to the public. According to an article published in the Guangming ribao 光明日报, the hall holds the following exhibition sections: A Shift of Strategy that Started the Long March 战略转移开始长征, The Great Turn of the Zunyi Conference 遵义会议伟大转折, (Military) Victory in Guizhou by Surprise Moves in Fighting 转战贵州、出奇制胜, Advance Bravely to Victory 勇往直前走向胜利 and The Spirit of the Zunyi Conference Lasts Forever 遵义会议精神永存. In addition, several authentic relics are exhibited in the hall, such as ferry boats, propaganda posters, and firearms used by the Red Army 红军 (Guangming ribao 2015). As the names of the several exhibition sections suggest, the hall not only reconstructs the history of the conference itself but also portrays the military context of the political decisions made during the Zunyi Conference. 

The house accommodating Mao Zedong, Zhang Wentian, and Wang Jiaxiang 王稼祥 (1906-1974) was built in 1933 and in January 1935 the three CCP leaders stayed here until the end of the conference. In 1980 and 2001 the house was renovated, and an exhibition room dedicated to Mao’s poems and calligraphy was added (official website)

The General Political Department of the Red Army during the Zunyi Conference was located in a catholic church, where the establishment of the Zunyi County Revolutionary Committee and other political issues were discussed in January 1935. This part of the memorial was repaired and renovated in 1978 and 1984. Open to the public in 1985, the restored parts include the site of the Red Army officier conference, offices and bedrooms of Red Army leaders such as the vice-president of the General Political Department Li Fuchun 李富春 (1900-1975), as well as the offices of various sections of the General Political Department  (official website). 

Due to the significant impact of the Zunyi Conference on the restaffing of the Politburo and, by extension, the reorganization of the CCP leadership, it is not surprising that the Zunyi Conference Memorial Hall appeared on the first list of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 1997.

Bibliography: 

Karl, Rebecca E. (2010): Mao Zedong and China in the Twentieth-Century World. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Li Jingya 李惊亚 (16.01.2015): “Zunyi huiyi xon chenlie guan zhengshi xiang gongzhong mianfei kaifang 遵义会议新陈列馆正式向公众免费开放 (The new exhibition hall of the Zunyi Conference is officially opened to the public for free)”. In: Guangming Ribao 光明日报.

Saich, Tony (1996): The rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party. Armonk: An East Gate Book.

Yang, Benjamin (1986): “The Zunyi Conference as One Step in Mao’s Rise to Power: A Survey of Historical Studies of the Chinese Communist Party”. In: China Quarterly. Vol 106. Pp. 235-271. 

Official website of the memorial: 

https://zunyihy.cn/

Website Yi qi zhui ji: 

https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/4433.html

List of Pictures: 

Featured Image: “作者在GNU下重新上传” (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zunyi_Conference#/media/File:ZunyiMeeting.jpg , author: 小小新手. 

According to its official website, the Nanhu Scenic Area 嘉兴市南湖风景名胜区 features a Red Tour program centering upon the history of the CCP’s First National Congress. In addition to a visit to the so-called “Red Boat” and the Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution 南湖革命纪念馆, it also offers the services of Party history education in boat, as well as ceremonies for CCP members’ admission oath 入党誓词 or for the coming-of-age oath of young people at the age of 18 十八岁成人仪式 . A 1921 Theme Park 1921 主题公园 is under construction as of 2021.

The Red Boat on the Nanhu was built in 1959 in imitation of the original boat, on which the First National Congress of the CCP took place. According to Nanhu Scenic Area official site, it symbolises the start of the CCP’s century-long history. 

The Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution was founded in October 1959. Originally located on an island in the Nanhu, the current Memorial Hall was completed on June 30, 2011 and moved to the south bank of the lake, occupying a total area of 19,217 m². The Memorial Hall was selected into the first list of the Demonstration Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育示范基地 in 1997 and has served as an Anti-Corruption Education Base of Zhejiang Province 浙江省廉政文化教育基地 since 2006. The Memorial Hall has taken over the administration of the Research Institute of the Red Boat Spirit 红船精神研究院, which was founded in April 2018. 

The Nahu Memorial Hall of Revolution consists of three major buildings arranged into the form of the Chinese character 工, symbolizing the CCP’s role as the vanguard of the working class, while its 56 pillars stand for the 56 ethnic groups uniting around the CCP. Behind the major buildings is a large square, which can accommodate a thousand people to hold their oath-taking ceremony (see featured image). 

The permanent exhibition titled “The Red Boat Sets Sail 红船起航” contains four parts: “National Salvation 救亡图存,” “Founding a New World 开天辟地,” “Glorious Experiences 光辉历程” “Marching towards (National) Renaissance 走向复兴.” With artefacts, statues, painting, diagrams, photos, and audio-visual materials, it contextualises the foundation of the CCP in China’s encounter with colonialism and consequently the rise of nationalism; emphasises the role of the Nahu in the First National Congress of the CCP, and acclaimed the CCP’s foundation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and its achievements.

The visits to the Red Boat and to the Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution are the major parts of the Nanhu Scenic Area. The Red Tour program, therefore, can be viewed as a typical case of the current Red Tourism in the PRC, which combines the Party’s own historiography, political education, ideological rituals, with the development of tourism and local economy. 

List of Pictures

Featured Image: Zhejiang sheng wenhua he lüyou ting 浙江省文化和旅游厅 (2018): “Nanhu fengjing mingsheng qu (Zhonggong yida jiuzhi) 南湖风景名胜区（中共一大旧址）(Nanhu Scenic Area (A Historical Site of the First National Congress of the CCP)).” In: Zhejiang hongse lüyou 浙江红色旅游 (March 16).

Picture 1. Njzjz (2006): “Nanhu hongchuan 南湖红船 (The Red Boat on the South Lake).” In: Wikipedia (May 28).

Picture 2.  Nanhu geming jinianguan 南湖革命纪念馆 (time unspecified): “Nanhu geming jinianguan jianjie 南湖革命纪念馆简介 (A Brief Introduction to the Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution).” In: Official Site of the Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution. 

Bibliography

Ishikawa, Yoshihiro (2013): The Formation of the Chinese Communist Party, Trans. Joshua A. Fogel. New York: Columbia University Press. 

Official Site of Nanhu Scenic Area 嘉兴市南湖风景名胜区.

Official Site of the Nanhu Memorial Hall of Revolution 南湖革命纪念馆.

Unit 731 of the Japanese Imperial Army 侵华日军第七三一部队 was founded in 1933 and moved three years later to the Pingfang District 平房区 of Harbin 哈尔滨, Heilongjiang Province 黑龙江省. According to the 1994 Records of Heilongjiang Province 黑龙江省志, the main purposes of this unit were the research and creation of biological weapons for germ warfare by means of human experimentations.

Up to August 1945, at least 3,000 Chinese, Soviet, and Tibetan people had died in the course of the creation of more than fifty biological weapons. According to Kai Vogelsang, Harbin was not the only place, where such cruel research methods were practiced. In Changchun 长春 and several other Manchurian cities, biological weapons were tested on Chinese civilians and prisoners of war as well (Vogelsang 2020: 384). 

In 2001, the former headquarter of Unit 731 of the Japanese Imperial Army was renovated and opened to the public. Here, an exhibition with 13 showrooms was located, which portrayed the history of Unit 731 during its stay in Harbin (Yi qi zhui ji). Fourteen years later, in 2015, the newly built Exhibition Hall of Evidences of Crime Committed by Unit 731 of the Japanese Imperial Army 侵华日军第七三一部队罪证陈列馆 was officially inaugurated. As stated in an article published in the newspaper Guangming ribao 光明日报, this exhibition hall is divided into six thematic sections: “Japanese Germ Warfare”, “The Headquarter of Unit 731 Germ Warfare”, “Human Experimentations”, “Manufacturing Biological Weapons”, “Developing Biological Weapons”, “Destruction of Evidence and the Trial” (Guangming ribao 2015). 

According to its official website, the exhibition hall is part of a larger preserved historical site of Unit 731, which consists of 27 parts, including the laboratories and special prisons that held human “experiment materials”, underground passages, and the military headquarter. In the headquarter the commander’s office and the guards’ office are displayed, which show the Japanese administration of the unit. 

By emphasizing the role of human experimentations in the process of Unit 731’s creation of biological weapons, the exhibition hall and historical site are presenting one horrendous dimension of war crimes committed by the Japanese Army. Insofar, it is understandable, why this site in Harbin was added to the first list of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 1997.

Bibliography: 

Beasley, William G. (1987): Japanese Imperialism 1894-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 

Chang, Iris (1997): The Rape of Nanking. New York: Basic Books.  

Gan Zhigeng 干志耿 (Ed.) (1994): Heilongjiang Sheng zhi di 53 juan wenwu zhi 黑龙江省志 第53卷 文物志 (The Records of Heilongjiang Province – Volume 53 Cultural Relics. Harbin 哈尔滨: Heilongjiang renmin chubanshe. 

Vogelsang, Kai (2020): China und Japan – Zwei Reiche unter einem Himmel. Stuttgart: Körner Verlag.

Zhang Jinzhong 张进中and Zhu Weihua 朱伟华 (16.08.2015): “Qi hua riben jun di Qi San Yi Budui zui zheng chenlie guan quanmian kaifang 侵华日军第七三一部队罪证陈列馆全面开放 (The Exhibition Hall of the Evidences of Crime committed by the 731st Unit of the Japanese Imperial Army is opened to the public)”. In: Guangming ribao 光明日报. 

Website “ Yi qi zhui ji ”: https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/890.html

Official Website: https://www.731museum.org.cn/

List of Pictures: 

Featured Image/Picture 1: „Unit 731 Complex“ (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731#/media/File:Unit_731_-_Complex.jpg, author: Unknown author). 

Picture 2: “Human Dissection Experiment Room” (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731#/media/File:Human_Dissection_Experiment_Room_at_Harbin’s_731_Museum.jpg author: X20106301). 

Picture 3: “The ruins of a boiler building on the site of the bioweapon facility of Unit 731” (source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731#/media/File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%B4%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%AC%E9%83%A8731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%88%E7%9F%B3%E4%BA%95%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%97%A5%E8%BB%8D%E7%AC%AC731%E9%83%A8%E9%9A%8A%E6%97%A7%E5%9D%80_PB121178a_%E3%83%9C%E3%82%A4%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E6%A5%9D%E8%B7%A1.JPG , author: 松岡明芳).

When the XPCC was founded, it was a “ragtag force of about 175,000 people,” including the PLA soldiers, Nationalist army forces, young civilians from coastal areas as well as former military forces of the interwar East Turkestan Republic (1933-34) (Olesen, Erickson). In 1956, its 300,000 troops were put under the control of the new State Farms and Land Reclamation Ministry. The XPCC was dissolved in 1975 and then resumed in 1981. In 1998, the XPCC was given a bureaucratic status equal to that of the government of the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. By 2003, it has 14 divisions (reclamation areas) with a total population of about 2 million (Information Office). 

The XPCC has not only created outposts in China’s western frontier, it is also a vast farming militia with a military-style organizational structure (Olesen). A documentary titled The Battle Hymn of Army Land Reclamation军垦战歌 was made in 1965, available on China’s video-sharing platform Bilibili.

The XPCC reclaimed farmland, established regimental agricultural and stock raising farms; and developed a “multi-sector industrial system.” Now the XPCC has grown into a hybrid of state-owned enterprise and bureaucracy whose employees are overwhelmingly Han Chinese. It is highly dependent on central government for financial and political support. As a militia, it works with the PLA and the local police to maintain internal stability, or “fighting terror” (Olesen, Bao, 3-4).

With its developmentalist mentality, China’s official report states that the XPCC has contributed to the development of Xinjiang in terms of infrastructure, investment, and technical knowhow, and hopes that Xinjiang’s urbanization can attract the Turkic-speaking, Muslim Uighurs, but the latter tend to feel dispossessed of their own land and resources. In their perception, the XPCC system facilitates the Han people to migrate into Xinjiang (Olesen)

The Museum of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps and Army Land Reclamation is located in the city of Shihezi 石河子市新疆生产建设兵团军垦博物馆. A sub-prefecture-level city in northern Xinjiang, Shihezi had developed from a military base constructed by the PLA soldiers. It is the birthplace of the XPCC in 1954 and has remained a major XPCC base till today. 

The museum was preceded by the Museum of Shihezi Army Land Reclamation 石河子军垦博物馆, which was founded in 1988 and open to the public in 1995. It is the first museum thematizing the history of army land reclamation in China. Renovated and expanded in 2004 and then in 2009, the current museum was reopened in 2010, covering a total area of 9703 m², with more than 4700 m² of exhibition areas and 1300 m² of collection storage space. The museum consists of a Preface Hall, Regular Exhibits, a 3D Screening Room and a Diorama Exhibition (Qin).

The museum boasts more than 5,000 historical artefacts, 29 of which are classified as Grade 1 revolutionary relics 一级革命文物. 

The museum uses artefacts, texts, paintings and photos, silicon statues, and dioramas to mediate the history of the XPCC reclaiming land in adverse conditions of Xinjiang (Qin). The ethnic relations are presented as harmonious and the hardship is interpreted in terms of work ethics, heroism, and patriotism of the XPCC. 

In 2005, the museum was selected as one of the One Hundred Red Tourism Destinations and national-level Base for Patriotic Education.

List of Pictures

Featured image: Jiandu jiancha si 监督检查司 (2014): “Xinjiang shengchan jianshe bingtuan junken bowuguan 新疆生产建设兵团军垦博物馆 (Museum of the XPCC and Army Land Reclamation)” In: Zhonghua renmin gongheguo guojia minzu shiwu weiyuanhui 中华人民共和国国家民族事务委员 (August 12).

Picture 1. Villegas (2015, upload): The poster of The Battle Hymn of Army Land Reclamation (1965). Douban 豆瓣 (December 1).

Picture 2: Wang Xueying 王雪迎 (2021): “ Tamen cong ‘siwang zhi hai’ zoupai 他们从‘死亡之海’走来 (They Came out of the ‘Sea of Death’).” In: Zhongqing zaixian中青在线  (August 12).

Picture 3: Ningjiao qiongzhi tang 凝胶琼脂糖 (2021): Vlog “Canguan xin zhuangxiu hou de junken bowuguan 参观新装修后的军垦博物馆 (Visiting the Newly Renovated Museum of the XPCC and Army Land Reclamation).” In: Bilibili (August 22).

Bibliography

Bachman, David (2005). “Making Xinjiang Safe for the Han? Contradictions and Ironies of Chinese Governance in China’s Northwest.” In: Governing China’s Multiethnic Frontiers. Ed. Morris Rossabi. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp.155-185.

Bao, Yajun (2018): “The Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps: An Insider’s Perspective.” Blavatnik School of Government (BSG) Working PaperSeries.

Erickson, Andrew S. (2009): “People’s Liberation Army: Military Enterprises and Industry Since 1949.” In: David Pong, ed., Encyclopedia of Modern China, Vol. 3. New York: Scribner. pp. 112-15.

Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China (May 2003): “History and Development of Xinjiang.” 

Olesen, Alexa (2014): “China’s Vast, Strange, and Powerful Farming Militia Turns 60.” Foreign Policy (Oct. 8).

Qin Junwei 秦俊伟 (2021): “Bingtuan lishi de jianzhengzhe 兵团历史的见证者—记新疆兵团军垦博物馆 (The Witness of the History of the XPCC: on the Museum of the XPCC and Army Land Reclamation).” Bingtuan wang 兵团网 (June 16). 

Occupying an area of about 784 square meters, the construction of the current Memorial was completed in 2005. Its major buildings imitate the elegant and simple architecture of the Ming- and Qing-Dynasties. As part of the Memorial is also a building of wooden structure, where the political department 政治部 of the Red Fourth Front Army was located (Yi qi zhui ji). As stated on the website “Wutongzhi”, the site has been well preserved and the Sichuan-Shaanxi Revolutionary Base was considered as the second-largest revolutionary base at the time. According to the website Yi qi zhui ji  , the Sichuan-Shaanxi Revolutionary Base Military History Exhibition Hall 川陕革命根据 地军史陈列馆 was established at the site in 1982. Seven years later, the museum was renamed as The Original Site and Exhibition Hall of the Red Fourth Front Army General Headquarter 红四方面军总指挥部旧址陈列馆 and in 1993, an inscription written by the former CCP chairman Jiang Zemin 江泽民 (born 1926) was attached at the entrance. 

As Tony Saich has argued, the Fourth Front Army functioned as a model for other Red Army forces, who were supposed to learn from its “heroism and excellent fighting skills” (Saich 1996: 681). Due to this function as a military role model, it is understandable why the site in Tongjiang county of Bazhong City was added to the second list of Bases for Patriotic Education 爱国主义教育基地 in 2001.

Bibliography: 

Ouyang Min 欧阳敏 (2013): Bashan hongqi hong si fangmian jun chuan shaan jishi 巴山红旗 红四方面军川陕纪实 (The Red Flag over Ba Mountain – The Documentary of the Red Fourth Front Army at Sichuan and Shaanxi). Chengdu 成都: Sichuan People’s Publishing House. 

Saich, Tony (1996): The rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party.Armonk: An East Gate Book. 

Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig (2008): Kleine Geschichte Chinas. München: C.H. Beck. 

Websites: 

“Sichuan wenminwang“: https://www.scwmw.cn/topic/2016/hjcz/bz/hsjzhb/

“Wutongzhi”: https://www.wutongzi.com/a/130446.html

“Yi qi zhui ji“: https://www.iwenbo.fun/museum/4385.html

List of Pictures:

Featured Image: “中国工农红军军旗“ (source: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%B7%A5%E5%86%9C%E7%BA%A2%E5%86%9B%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E6%96%B9%E9%9D%A2%E5%86%9B#/media/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg, author: PhiLiP).

On 10. October 1936, the First, Second, and Fourth Front Armies joined forces in Huining County 会宁县, Gansu Province. According to a 2006 travel guide penned by Ouyang Zhengyu and Zhao Yuqin, this meeting represented the successful maneuver of the CCP troops from along the Yangtze 长江 in the South to the Yellow River 黄河 in northwestern China. Due to this, the Red Army Long March Meeting in Huining County 会宁县红军长征会师 can be seen as a significant historical event related to the Long March (Ouyang 2006: 252). 

Today, the Original Site of the Meeting Venue of the Red Forces at the End of the Long March in Huining 会宁县红军长征会师旧址 can be visited, which not only contains the site itself but also two exhibition halls and several outdoor memorial facilities and monuments like a memorial park, a stele forest and a memorial tower. 

From 1986 to 1996, the first steps of establishing the memorial were taken at the original site in today’s Baiyin City 白银. During this time, the memorial tower with an inscription of the former CCP leader Deng Xiaoping 邓小平 (1904-1997) and the Stele Forest of Generals of the Joined Red Army Forces 红军会师将帅碑林 were built (Ya 2014). Furthermore, the Exhibition Hall of Revolutionary Cultural Artefacts: the Meeting of Red Army Forces 红军会师革命文物陈列馆 was built during these years, which displays authentic photos showing the bleak scenery around the site when the three armies reached Huining County (People’s Daily 人民日报 2009). As stated on the website bytravel.cn., the Memorial Hall of Red Army’s Victorious Long March 红军长征胜利纪念馆 was finished on 18. October 2006, which portrays the history of the Long March using authentic cultural artifacts and multimedia display areas. The site also offers the Park of Red Army’s Victorious Long March 红军长征胜利景园 that emphasizes the historic relevance of the meeting of several Red Army forces in Huinning to the Long March as a whole. In addition to the two museums and the outdoor memorial monuments, the Dacheng Hall 大成殿 can be visited, which was the venue of the meeting (Ya 2014). 

While Yan’an 延安 in Shaanxi Province is considered to be the political destination of the Long March, Huining, where the Red Army forces met, can be seen as the end of the Long March in military context.

Bibliography: 

Li Zhanji 李战吉 (10.08.2009): “73 Nianqian, Zhongguo Gongnong Hongjun, Di Yi, Er, Si Fangmian Jun huiju Huining Xiangcheng. Jinri Huining zheng zou shang yi tiao pinkundiqu kexue fazhan de tese chuangxin zhi lu – Hongse Huining hui xin tu 73年前，中国工农红军第一、二、四方面军汇聚会宁县城。今日会宁正走上一条贫困地区科学发展的特色创新之路　红色会宁绘新图 (73 years ago, the First, the Second and the Fourth Front Armies of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Army came together at Huining County. Today Huining is embarking on a road of characteristic innovation for scientific development in poor areas. Red Huining draws a new pictures)”. In: People’s Daily 人民日报.

Ouyang Zhengyu 欧阳正宇 and Zhao Yuqin 赵玉琴 (2006): Gansu daoyu 甘肃导游 (Gansu tourguide). Lanzhou 兰州: Gansu People’s Printing House.

Saich, Tony (1996): The rise to power of the Chinese Communist Party. Armonk: An East Gate Book.

Ya Xin 雅馨 (12.05.20214): Baiyin fengcai – Huining Hongjun huishi jiuzhi 白银风采——会宁红军会师旧址 (Attractions at  Baiyin – The Former Site of the Red Army joined forces at Huining). In: https://www.wutongzi.com/index.html https://www.wutongzi.com/a/32366.html (latest access 04.10.2021).

Website bytravel.cn: https://www.bytravel.cn/landscape/76/huininghongjunchangzhengshenglijinianguan.html 

List of Pictures: 

Featured Image: “Great joy after the three great main forces meet” (source: https://chineseposters.net/posters/e15-849, designer: Xiao Hui 肖辉, Call number: BG E15/849(Stefan R. Landsberger Collection)).